TThe comma
The comma is the most important punctuation mark after the full stop. Its main use is for separating parts of sentences. Commas function in five main ways:
1. Before or after adverbial clauses and phrases
For example:
After dinner, he walked around the town.
2. Before various connectives to join two independent clauses
(and, but, or, so nor, for yet)
For example:
The house badly needed painting, and the roof needed repairing.
3. To separate certain phrases from the rest of the sentence
For example:
In the United States, for example, many people buy and sell goods and services as their primary occupations.
4. To separate words, phrases and clauses in a series
For example:
A policeman has to be able to work at night, at weekends and on holidays.
5. To separate adjectives that separately modify the same noun.
For example:
He walked with long, slow, steady, deliberate strides.
The apostrophe
The apostrophe has two main functions in English, but only one in academic writing. It is used mainly to show possession or relationship. It is also used in informal writing to show contraction or letters left out.
Possession or relationship
The apostrophe precedes the 's' in singular words and plurals that do not end in 's'. It follows the 's' in plurals that end in 's'. The apostrophe is not used with the possessive pronouns 'hers', 'yours', 'theirs' and 'its'.
For example:
Two years earlier, The Economist had described gambling, as Britain's second biggest industry.
Quotation marks
In academic writing, quotation marks are used to show that you are quoting directly from another author's work. The quotation marks should enclose the actual words of the author and all bibliographical information must be given.
For example:
Hillocks (1986) similarly reviews dozens of research findings. He writes, " The available research suggests that teaching by written comment on compositions is generally ineffective" (p. 167).
Note the punctuation before the quotation marks:
- When a reporting verb is used to introduce the quotation, a comma is used.
He stated, " The 'placebo effect,' ... disappeared when behaviours were studied in this manner" (Smith, 1982, p. 276), but he did not clarify which behaviours were studied.
- When the quotation is integrated into the structure of your sentence, no punctuation is used.
Richterich and Chancerel (1980, p. 5) maintain that " assessment should be an integral part of the learning material" .
- When the quotation is independent of the structure of the main sentence, a colon is used.
Miele (1993, p. 276) found the following: " The placebo effect ... disappeared when behaviors were studied in this manner" .
Colon
Colons are used to add extra information after a clause. This can be divided into three main categories.
Lists
A colon can introduce a list.
We need three kinds of support: economic, moral and political.
Explanations
A colon can be used before an explanation.
We decided not to go on holiday: we had too little money.
Quotations
A colon is used before a quotation when the quotation is independent of the structure of the main sentence.
Miele (1993, p. 276) found the following: " The placebo effect ... disappeared when behaviors were studied in this manner."
Note
Do not use a colon directly after a verb or a preposition that introduces the list, explanation or quotation.
Semi-Colon
Semi-Colons have two main uses in academic writing.
To separate closely-related sentences
A semi-colon can be used to separate two sentences which could be written as independent sentences but are very closely related in meaning.
A thorough and detailed biography of Arthur Henderson is also badly needed; the recent short studies by F. M. Leventhal and Chris Wrigley add little in so far as the events of 1931 are concerned.
Complicated Lists
A semi-colon can also be used to separate items in lists, especially if the items are long and complicated and already contain commas.
Latin literature continued to be copied by Christian aristocrats; classical learning survived in the teaching available, now in episcopal households rather than public schools; Roman art continued to adorn the walls of churches and the sides of sarcophagi.
Capital letters
Capital letters have two main uses in English: they are used at the beginning of sentences and for proper names.
At the beginning of a sentence
If football was a business, it was a very peculiar one. Clubs did not compete with one another to attract larger crowds by reducing their prices. Nor did they make any serious efforts to derive income from a huge fixed asset, which was used for only a few hours a week.
Proper names
Personal names: John, Ms Smith, Dr Brown, Mr Gates, Elizabeth, Titles: Mr, Ms, Dr, Colonel, Professor, President, Prime Minister, Judge
Geographical names: Argentinian, Europe, China, Mount Everest, Lake Michigan Skye, Borneo, London, Bangkok, the River Thames, the Pacific Ocean, the Panama Canal, Baker Street, Cambridge Road, Raffles Hotel, St George's Hall
Company/Organisation names: Shell, Woolworths, Microsoft, Boots, World Trade Organisation, World Health Organisation, Federal Trade Commission, British Broadcasting Corporation
University/School names: Oxford University, University of Hertfordshire, Royal College of Music
Religions: Islam, Buddhism, Christianity
Days, months, festivals - but not seasons: Monday, July, Christmas, summer
Magazines: Newsweek, Vogue, The Times, New Scientist
Languages: English, Hindi
Nationalities: English, French, Spanish, Japanese, American
American
from:http://englishcenter.blogfa.com
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